After the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, most bishops withdrew from Rome with the Pope’s permission. The war between France and Prussia (Germany) required the presence of pastors in their dioceses. At the same time, the government of the Piedmont King Victor Emmanuel II stirred up political agitation in Rome. This turmoil prevented the Council from continuing its work.
As the French army’s inferiority against the Germans became evident, Piedmont’s government redoubled its audacity. It no longer concealed its intention to invade what remained of the Papal States. Victor Emmanuel set out to conquer Rome and make it the capital of a unified Italy.
Until 1870, the uncompromising defense of the Pope’s temporal power was one of the glories of French Catholics in the nineteenth century. , Emperor Napoleon III desired the unification of Italy and often helped the revolutionaries. However, he stationed French troops to protect the Papal States and Rome. Traditional Catholic opinion never allowed the Emperor to withdraw his troops, forcing him to restrain Piedmont’s sacrilegious pretensions. However, France’s defeat at Prussian hands changed the picture as the Emperor called back the troops and thus deprived the Pope of his primary support. Victor Emmanuel’s government naturally took advantage of this to complete the work of “Risorgimento” (unification).
The record of Napoleon III’s duplicity creates much confusion. A summary of his role over the preceding decade is helpful.
At times, Napoleon III often promoted the Italian revolution. On other occasions, he sat idly by, especially when he was engaged with other countries.
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The first attacks against pontifical territories occurred in 1860, following the Franco-Austrian War. The Holy See lost the eastern two-thirds of its provinces. An alarmed Pius IX decided to form his own defensive army, the Papal Zouaves. He named Xavier de Mérode, a former soldier and son of a Belgian princely family with a great military tradition, as vice-minister of war. As commander in chief, the Pope designated General Louis Juchault de Lamoricière, who covered himself with glory in Algeria at the service of France. Pius encouraged volunteers from all countries to enlist.1
Numerous Frenchmen, including the commander and the chief of staff, Count Georges de Pimodan, generously answered Pius IX’s call. Together with the Belgians, they formed a battalion that the Italians called the Papal Zouaves. Most of them belonged to the French nobility, and many had great names such as Guiche, Chevreuse, Ligne, etc. Sons of heroes from the Vendée also flocked in. 2
Filled with enthusiasm, the Zouaves were keenly aware of the nobility of the Pope’s cause. One could compare their generosity to that of their ancestors, the ancient crusaders.
One project, which unfortunately did not go ahead, shows the spirit that animated them. Henri de Cathelineau proposed the formation of an international religious and military Order-the Order of Saint Peter-whose battle cry would have been “Saint Peter, Saint Peter!” Its banner would have carried the image of the Blessed Mother and an inverted cross to honor the Apostle thus crucified.
The Piedmont government realized it had to neutralize the Zouaves at all costs. In 1860, under the pretext that he needed to cross the Papal States to fight a revolt in Naples, Italian General Manfredo Fanti sent Gen. Lamoricière an ultimatum. Soon after, he attacked the papal troops at Castelgandolfo with far superior numbers. The Zouaves resisted heroically and only withdrew when the enemy’s numerical superiority made it useless to continue fighting.
Napoleon III, who had also been concerned about the formation of the papal militia, soon resumed protecting the Holy See and restraining Piedmont. Nevertheless, Pius IX did not disband his army but merely slowed the pace of its formation. These troops, commanded by General Hermann Kanzler, defeated Garibaldi at Mentana in 1866.
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In 1870, the war with Germany forced France to withdraw its soldiers from Rome. Immediately after the Imperial defeat at the Battle of Sedan, King Victor Emmanuel sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Rome. The Count’s mission was to deceive the Pope, telling him that Italian troops needed to enter the Eternal City to protect the Holy See. Pius IX strongly rejected this cynical proposal. General Raffaele Cadorna was ordered to attack the Papal States. On September 20, his soldiers occupied Rome. The Eternal City was effectively undefended. To avoid useless bloodshed, Pope Pius IX ordered General Kanzler to surrender during the first moments of combat.
The General signed a capitulation document agreeing that the papal army was to disband and leave Rome. The Palatine Guard was allowed to remain to protect the pontiff.
Before withdrawing, the Zouaves paid homage to Pius IX. At seven a.m. on September 21, 1870, in front of the formed troop, their commander, General Allete, raised his saber and exclaimed, “Long live Pius IX, Pontiff and King!” The soldiers replied, “Long live Pius IX!” while unloading their weapons into the air and waving their caps. The deeply moved Pope had to be supported by the prelates around him.
Unlike their Emperor, these French Catholics affirmed their fidelity until the last moment. They made it clear they were only withdrawing in obedience to the Vicar of Christ.
Pius IX solemnly protested against the occupation of Rome. Rather than accept Italian rule, the Pope remained “the prisoner of the Vatican.” Italian unification was complete. Until the Lateran Treaty was signed in 1929, the popes remained locked in their palace as a sign of protest against the sacrilegious usurpation of 1870.
Footnotes
- While the vast majority of Papal troops were either Dutch, French or Belgian, there were also 135 Canadians (mainly from Quebec) and 14 Americans among them.
- The men of the Vendée covered their region with glory by mounting a counter-revolutionary force during the French Revolution. Among the Zouaves were four Charettes (Baron Athanase Charles Marie de Charette became notable in the Pope’s service) as well as a descendant of Jacques Cathelineau. Two kinsmen of Joseph de Maistre represented the Ultramontanes.